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11 July, 2023

SEXUALITY AND MENTAL COUNSELING

SEXUALITY AND MENTAL HEALTH

Introduction: 
Sexuality is not about who you have sex with, or how often you have it. 
Sexuality is about your sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions and behaviours towards other people. You can find other people physically, sexually or emotionally attractive, and all those things are a part of your sexuality.

Sexuality is diverse and personal, and it is an important part of who you are. Discovering your sexuality can be a very liberating, exciting and positive experience.

Some people experience discrimination due to their sexuality. If someone gives you a hard time about your sexuality, its good to talk to someone about it.
Different types of sexuality
Sometimes, it can take time to figure out the sexuality that fits you best. And your sexuality can change over time. It can be confusing; so dont worry if you are unsure.

You might be drawn to men or to women, to both or to neither. There is no right or wrong  its about whats right for you. And while there are common terms to describe different types of sexuality, you dont have to adopt a label to describe yourself.

Heterosexual and homosexual
Most people are attracted to the opposite sex  boys who like girls, and women who like men, for example. These people are heterosexual, or straight.

Some people are attracted to the same sex. These people are homosexual. Around 10 per cent of young Australians experience same-sex attraction, most during puberty.

Lesbian is the common term for people who identify as women and are same-sex attracted. Gay is the most common term for people who identify as men and are same-sex attracted, although women identifying as lesbian also sometimes use this word.

The Better Health Channel has more information on lesbian sexuality and gay male sexuality.

Bisexual
Sexuality can be more complicated than being straight or gay. Some people are attracted to both men and women, and are known as bisexual.

Bisexual does not mean the attraction is evenly weighted  a person may have stronger feelings for one gender than another. And this can vary depending on who they meet.

There are different kinds of bisexuality. Some people who are attracted to men and women still consider themselves to be mainly straight or gay. Or they might have sexual feelings towards both genders but only have intercourse with one.

Other people see sexual attraction as more grey than black and white. These people find everyday labels too rigid. Some prefer to identify as queer. And others use the term pan, or pansexual, to show they are attracted to different kinds of people no matter what their gender, identity or expression.

There are many differences between individuals, so bisexuality is a general term only. You can read more about it at the Better Health Channels page on bisexuality.

Asexual
A person who identifies as asexual (ace for short) is someone who does not experience, or experiences very little, sexual attraction. Asexuality is not a choice, like abstinence (where someone chooses not to have sex with anyone, whether they are attracted to them or not). Asexuality is a sexual orientation, like homosexuality or heterosexuality. Some people may strongly identify with being asexual, except for a few infrequent experiences of sexual attraction (grey-asexuality). Some people feel sexual attraction only after they develop a strong emotional bond with someone (this is known as demisexuality). Other people experience asexuality in a range of other ways.

Discrimination based on sexuality
Equality and freedom from discrimination are fundamental human rights that belong to all people.

In most states in Australia, including Victoria, it is against the law to discriminate against someone because of their sexual orientation, gender identity or lawful sexual activity. However, discrimination can still occur.

If you think you have been discriminated against or victimised because of your sexuality (or a range of other reasons) contact the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission. For information on the legal obligations of employers regarding discrimination based on sexual identity, see the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission webpage on equal opportunity practice guidelines.

MENTAL HEALTH

Concepts in mental health
Mental health is a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of life, realize their abilities, learn well and work well, and contribute to their community. It is an integral component of health and well-being that   underpins our individual and collective abilities to make decisions, build relationships and shape the world we live in. Mental health is a basic human right. And it is crucial to personal, community and socio-economic development.

Mental health is more than the absence of mental disorders. It exists on a complex continuum, which is experienced differently from one person to the next, with varying degrees of difficulty and distress and potentially very different social and clinical outcomes.

Mental health conditions include mental disorders and psychosocial disabilities as well as other mental states associated with significant distress, impairment in functioning, or risk of self-harm. People with mental health conditions are more likely to experience lower levels of mental well-being, but this is not always or necessarily the case.

Determinants of mental health
Throughout our lives, multiple individual, social and structural determinants may combine to protect or undermine our mental health and shift our position on the mental health continuum.

Individual psychological and biological factors such as emotional skills, substance use and genetics can make people more vulnerable to mental health problems.

Exposure to unfavourable social, economic, geopolitical and environmental circumstances  including poverty, violence, inequality and environmental deprivation  also increases peoples risk of experiencing mental health conditions.

Risks can manifest themselves at all stages of life, but those that occur during developmentally sensitive periods, especially early childhood, are particularly detrimental. For example, harsh parenting and physical punishment is known to undermine child health and bullying is a leading risk factor for mental health conditions.

Protective factors similarly occur throughout our lives and serve to strengthen resilience. They include our individual social and emotional skills and attributes as well as positive social interactions, quality education, decent work, safe neighbourhoods and community cohesion, among others.

Mental health risks and protective factors can be found in society at different scales. Local threats heighten risk for individuals, families and communities. Global threats heighten risk for whole populations and include economic downturns, disease outbreaks, humanitarian emergencies and forced displacement and the growing climate crisis.

Each single risk and protective factor has only limited predictive strength. Most people do not develop a mental health condition despite exposure to a risk factor and many people with no known risk factor still develop a mental health condition. Nonetheless, the interacting determinants of mental health serve to enhance or undermine mental health.

Mental health promotion and prevention
Promotion and prevention interventions work by identifying the individual, social and structural determinants of mental health, and then intervening to reduce risks, build resilience and establish supportive environments for mental health. Interventions can be designed for individuals, specific groups or whole populations.

Reshaping the determinants of mental health often requires action beyond the health sector and so promotion and prevention programmes should involve the education, labour, justice, transport, environment, housing, and welfare sectors. The health sector can contribute significantly by embedding promotion and prevention efforts within health services; and by advocating, initiating and, where appropriate, facilitating multisectoral collaboration and coordination.
Suicide prevention is a global priority and included in the Sustainable Development Goals. Much progress can be achieved by limiting access to means, responsible media reporting, social and emotional learning for adolescents and early intervention. Banning highly hazardous pesticides is a particularly inexpensive and costeffective intervention for reducing suicide rates.

Promoting child and adolescent mental health is another priority and can be achieved by policies and laws that promote and protect mental health, supporting caregivers to provide nurturing care, implementing school-based programmes and improving the quality of community and online environments. School-based social and emotional learning programmes are among the most effective promotion strategies for countries at all income levels.

Promoting and protecting mental health at work is a growing area of interest and can be supported through legislation and regulation, organizational strategies, manager training and interventions for workers.

Mental health care and treatment
In the context of national efforts to strengthen mental health, it is vital to not only protect and promote the mental well-being of all, but also to address the needs of people with mental health conditions.

This should be done through community-based mental health care, which is more accessible and acceptable than institutional care, helps prevent human rights violations and delivers better recovery outcomes for people with mental health conditions. Community-based mental health care should be provided through a network of interrelated services that comprise:

Mental health services that are integrated in general health care, typically in general hospitals and through task-sharing with non-specialist care providers in primary health care;
community mental health services that may involve community mental health centers and teams, psychosocial rehabilitation, peer support services and supported living services; and services that deliver mental health care in social services and non-health settings, such as child protection, school health services, and prisons.

The vast care gap for common mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety means countries must also find innovative ways to diversify and scale up care for these conditions, for example through non-specialist psychological counselling or digital self-help.

Key facts:
Affordable, effective and feasible strategies exist to promote, protect and restore mental health.
The need for action on mental health is indisputable and urgent.
Mental health has intrinsic and instrumental value and is integral to our well-being.
Mental health is determined by a complex interplay of individual, social and structural stresses and vulnerabilities.

Your mental health  your psychological, emotional, and social well-being  has an impact on every aspect of your life. Positive mental health essentially allows you to effectively deal with lifes everyday challenges.

LGBTIQ+ people have an increased risk of depression, anxiety, substance abuse, homelessness, self-harming and suicidal thoughts, compared with the general population. This is particularly true of young LGBTIQ+ people who are coming to terms with their sexuality and experiencing victimisation and bullying at school.

Some of the stressful experiences that can affect the mental health of an LGBTIQ+ person are:

feeling different from other people

being bullied (verbally or physically)

feeling pressure to deny or change their sexuality.

feeling worried about coming out, and then being rejected or isolated

feeling unsupported or misunderstood.

These pressures are on top of all the other stuff people have to deal with in life such as managing school, finding a job, forming relationships and making sense of your identity and place in the world.

Helping someone struggling with their sexuality and mental health
If you are worried that someone you know has a mental health problem, look out for changes in their mood, behaviour, relationships, appetite, sleep patterns, coping and thinking. If these changes last more than a couple of weeks, talk to them about getting help. A good place to start is their doctor. If you are struggling with your own sexuality: Get support if youre finding it hard to cope. Try talking to someone you trust  a friend, relative, doctor or counselor. Dont hang around someone if they are abusive to you.
Remember, there is no rush to figure out your sexuality. Take your time. And dont feel pressured to put a label on it.

SEXUALITY COUNSELING

Sexuality Counseling: Sexuality counseling is a specialized area of counseling that can be practiced by a variety of professionals. These professionals may include marriage and family therapists, school counselors, psychologists, psychiatrists, or social workers. It is an important aspect of mental health care to provide support and assistance in decision-making for individuals struggling with sexual identity issues.

The purpose of sexuality counseling is similar to any other form of therapy. Individuals seeking help from a counselor are most often struggling with identity formation, depression, anxiety, or other mental health issues. In sexuality counseling, it is common for an individual to struggle with sexual orientation and/or gender identity-related conflicts. Sexuality counseling can also be used as a preventative measure by instilling healthy sexual choices and behaviors in individuals before they reach adulthood.

What Does Sexuality Counseling Help With?
Sexual difficulty can be subjective and difficult to talk about, and for this reason, a professional sex therapist should be specifically consulted if:

You have experienced sexual difficulties in the past and wish to resolve them
If you are experiencing difficulties that currently limit your life or cause you significant distress.
You are looking for specific information about sexuality or desire. Often there are questions about physical aspects of intercourse/sex, but sometimes individuals simply want more information on what is normal.
An individual who is seeking sexuality counseling may be struggling with issues such as:

Sexual Desire
Concerns about sexual desire are common among individuals coming for sexuality counseling. Often, it is the individual who lacks feelings of sexual attraction that seeks out therapy. Other times, an individual may feel that they have experienced a drastic change in their ability to be sexually attracted to others after suffering from a sexual assault or similar trauma.

Arousal Difficulties
An individual struggling with arousal difficulties may feel that they are not sexually aroused, or only able to be sexually aroused in a single sexual orientation. It is common for individuals who have been victims of sexual assault to feel this way, as their arousal becomes associated with trauma. Individuals who do not experience any form of arousal might also seek out sexuality counseling, either due to other health concerns or simply because they want to enjoy a sex life despite their lack of arousal.

Relationship Issues
Issues with sexuality within relationships can stem from direct issues within the relationship. This can be in the form of communication problems, feelings of neglect, or even abuse. Or it could be that there is a lack of intimacy within the relationship; generally, in close relationships (i.e. not necessarily sexual ones) you can often find that individuals feel like they are struggling to meet each others expectations and therefore end up feeling distant from one another which can lead to issues with sexuality e.g. unwillingness to make love because you dont feel emotionally connected; doing so would feel like cheating on someone else (when in reality this isnt the case).

Sexuality Counseling Approaches
Sexuality counseling may help individuals or couples with physical sexual problems, mental disorders, relationship issues, gender identity disorder.

There are 3 different types of sexuality counseling approaches:

Sexuality Education Approach: provides the client with knowledge about their body parts associated with sexuality including technics to improve relationships

Behavioral Approach:  helps eliminate certain negative behaviors through techniques such as systematic desensitization or masturbatory reconditioning

Cognitive-Behavioral Approach:  focuses on irrational thoughts that influence behavior and then provide positive cognitions in place of these to achieve behavioral changes.

Goal of Sexuality Counseling
The goal of sexuality counseling is either to resolve or to improve a sexual problem. It may be part of the treatment for an individual who is experiencing depression, anxiety, poor self-esteem, relationship difficulties.

It can also help those individuals who would like to explore their sexuality and make sense of their sexual identity as well as encourage others who dont want to pursue relationships or intercourse because they are no longer interested in it.

Sexuality counseling provides people with information on safe sex practices and contraception choices to avoid sexually transmitted infections (STI). It may also provide bereavement counseling to those involved in a romantic relationship that has recently ended or that was previously unresolved. In some cases, the professional might refer the client to a specialist such as a social worker if there seem to be problems between the client and their partner.

Sexuality counseling involves the awareness of ones own values, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, attitudes about sex and sexuality which are personal to each individual. It also includes awareness of interpersonal relationships in general while considering sexual issues.

Some Issues Addressed via Sexuality Counseling
These are some of the issues that sexuality counseling tries to address with individuals or couples when these are causing problems in their sexual lives.
 Some of these are:

Sexual Desire: this has been defined as a state when people experience sexual pleasure, with or without orgasm.

Inhibited Sexual Desire: this is a difficulty in feeling passion for making love and thus in engaging in sex. It affects both men and women. In men, they may have problems reaching orgasm or ejaculating while women may lack vaginal lubrication which is necessary for pleasurable intercourse.

Male Erectile Disorder: erectile dysfunction (ED) results from physical or psychological issues that cause impotence or erectile dysfunction (ED). This disorder can include the inability to get an erection during sexual activity even though the individual has a desire to do so.

Benefits of Sexuality Counseling
There are some benefits of sexuality counseling.

Helps To Resolve Problems
One of the most important benefits of sexuality counseling is that it helps to resolve problems. This is one reason why professionals are used, because they may be able to provide more insight into how to go about resolving these issues. They can offer advice on what the person should do in order to better help them deal with their problem and can sometimes point out solutions they may not have thought about before.

Increases Confidence
Sexuality counseling also helps people gain more confidence. It may be difficult for some people who feel they are unable to form relationships or follow through sexually, but this type of counseling gives them the chance to discuss their issues with someone who understands and does not judge them. There are no judgments passed when they get a good relationship and the person is able to get good feedback on how they can improve and what they should do in order to be successful.

Increases Self-Esteem
Another thing that may happen when a person goes through sexuality counseling is that their self-esteem may increase. They will feel better about themselves. It is because they are able to discuss their problems and at the end of it there is no judgment. They will also offer encouragement and advice on how people can overcome these things, giving them more confidence in themselves as well. The counselors try to make sure the individual leaves feeling positive about themselves and their abilities to deal with other areas in life outside of sex too.

Helps To Gain More Knowledge
This is true especially if both of the partners are new to the counseling. They may have some general knowledge about sex but experiencing it is an altogether different thing. Through sexuality counseling, they can learn more about each others needs and desires while still having fun exploring these things.

Helps To Enhance Your Sex Life
If you want to enhance your intimacy and your sexual relationship, then sexuality counseling is the type of therapy that can help. Intimacy involves many different elements including communication, touch, physical closeness and overall comfort with another person.

Helps You Resolve Issues
Sexuality counseling can be helpful in resolving problems or issues that may be getting in the way of intimacy or sexual relations. The specific issue could be conflict over who makes love more often; it could involve concerns about moving forward sexually after an affair; it could also deal with past trauma around sex; whatever the problem may be, counselors can help people resolve these types of difficulties.

Side-Effects of Sexuality Counseling
These are some side effects of sexuality counseling. Some of these are:

There are many different ways that sexuality counseling can go wrong.  Counselors might promote sex-negative attitudes and behaviors that interfere with healthy sexual development.  They might try to impose gender stereotypes onto their clients and frame non-traditional gender identities as mental illness.  They might pathologize ordinary sexual variations, treating them as signs of psychological disturbance rather than diversity.

Counselors also have a propensity for imposing their own religious or political beliefs on clients: Many therapists who conduct conversion therapy are Christian counselors who believe homosexuality is a sin and bisexuality doesnt exist.

There is an unfortunate lack of consensus regarding what does and does not constitute ethical sexuality counseling . Ive identified three strands of tension that play out in different scenarios:

This tension can play out in different ways, depending on how much the counselor knows about specific aspects of sexuality. For instance, if a counselor has no knowledge whatsoever of sexual anatomy or sex-related illnesses, they might try to convince their clients that non-reproductive sexual activities are unhealthy even though there is ample evidence that many forms of sex play are physically safe.

This tension arises when counselors hold specific beliefs about sexuality that conflict with the ethical codes governing sexuality counseling . Some psychologists promote erroneous ideas like autogynephilia and arousal nonconcordance, while others refuse to acknowledge identities like transsexuality and bisexuality . This tension also surfaces when counselors make assumptions about their clients identities or preferences without first them for input.


MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELING: 

Mental health counseling is helpful for mental health disorders and distress. Learn how it works and the benefits of clinical mental health counseling.

Mental health counseling, or psychotherapy, is something many people wonder about. It's a concept that, until one begins, seems hard to fully grasp. It's not uncommon for people to associate counseling with the proverbial couch, with the client lying on this piece of furniture and spilling their guts while a counselor, who may or may not look like Sigmund Freud, furiously takes detailed notes on a pad of paper. This process is called psychoanalysis and is rarely practiced in the twenty-first century (but mental health counselors typically do take some notes to increase understanding). If this picture is outdated, how does clinical mental health counseling really work?

How Mental Health Counseling Works
Mental health counseling is a formal, purposeful partnership between a client and a mental health professional. It's sometimes referred to as clinical mental health counseling; not because it's cold and dispassionate but because it is based on sound research and uses techniques proven to be effective.

Counseling is a process of varying lengths during which a mental health counselor and a client work together to explore problems and develop the skills and mindset needed to transcend challenges and live a life of emotional health. The length of the counseling process varies depending on the individual and the mental health disorder or distress. It can continue anywhere from a few weekly sessions to months or, sometimes, years of occasional sessions.

People seek counseling for many different things. Counseling is for mental illness as well as for specific life stresses, such as a toxic workplace with a bullying boss. Counseling happens individually, in one-on-one sessions with a counselor. Additionally, people can engage in couples therapy, family therapy, or group therapy.

Clinical Mental Health Counseling Approaches
Mental health counselors choose from a plethora of approaches when helping someone. The particular approach used depends on both the counselor's professional preference as well as the nature and characteristics of an individual client.

Each approach has a particular focus. Mental health counseling methods can emphasize a person's background, emotions, thoughts, behaviors, or a combination of these elements. Within each category are specific theoretical techniques. Below is a list of the most common approaches, or theories. The list is meant as a starting point for exploration. If there are some methods that resonate with you, you can inquire about the theoretical approach when you are searching for a counselor.

Theories that emphasize background are:

* psychoanalysis (Freud and the couch)
* Jungian analytical psychology
* individual (or Adlerian) psychology

Emotion-based theories include:
* person-centered (Rogerian) psychology
* existential psychology
* gestalt therapy

Among theories that focus on thoughts are:
* cognitive therapy
* rational-emotive behavioral therapy (REBT)

Approaches emphasizing behaviors involve:
* cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
* dialectical-behavior therapy (DBT)
* acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)
* solution-focused brief therapy

A growing counseling approach that falls into the categories of thoughts, feelings, and behavior as well as stands strongly on its own is positive psychology.

Most counselors don't practice one single approach but instead weave together principles of many to best fit individual clients. Approaches most likely to be used on their own include CBT, DBT, ACT, and solution-focused brief therapy.

Benefits of Mental Health Counseling
Counseling indeed helps many people; approximately 80 percent of people in counseling reap benefits (Seligman, 2006). When people engage in mental health counseling, they often gain:

personal empowerment
hope
the overcoming of demoralization caused by social stigma
acceptance of life
personal insight
life skills
wellness
prevention of future mental health distress

Mental health counseling improves and even saves lives. Seeking counseling is a sign of courage and strength because it's an important step in taking charge of mental health and creating the life that you deserve, a life worth living.

Summary
Sexuality is diverse, and there are many different types. It can take time to figure out the sexuality that fits you best. And your sexuality can change over time. 
Coming to terms with your sexuality can be a very liberating, exciting and positive experience.

Sexuality is an important part of who you are. There is no right or wrong, its about whats right for you. 
Some people have a hard time accepting others who are different to themselves. If someone gives you a hard time about your sexuality, its good to talk to someone about it. You dont need to deal with it by yourself.  


Conclusion
In conclusion, sexuality counseling is something that has proven to be effective in treating many problems. This is especially those having to do with relationships, but there are some side effects. It may not cause all of these effects but it can cause at least one or two for certain people. If you want to take sexuality counseling then it would be best to speak with a doctor about your options. 


REFERENCE:

Peterson, T. (2017, October 23). Mental Health Counseling: How it Works, Benefits, HealthyPlace. Retrieved on 2023, July 8 from https://www.healthyplace.com/other-info/mental-illness-overview/mental-health-counseling-how-it-works-benefits

King, Bruce M. (2009). Human sexuality Today (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Vango Books. ISBN 978-0128645116

Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality. American psychological Association. (www.apa.org) 
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05 July, 2023

How to retrieve you NPC-EBirth Application ID Code

Key Points:

  • Retrieving your NPC birth registration application ID code is an easy and hassle-free process.
  • Using the Birth Registration Adhoc E Recruitment Portal is essential for regaining your ID code.
  • Your National Identification Number (NIN) acts as your application code for retrieval.

npc application code

How to  Retrieve Your NPC Birth Registration Application ID Code

Are you having trouble finding your NPC birth registration application ID code?

Have you lost or forgotten to save your application ID? No need to worry! We’re here to help!

We will guide you through simple steps to solve this issue effortlessly.

So, let’s get started and discover how you can retrieve your NPC birth registration application ID code in just five easy steps.

Important Link: NPC Birth Recruitment

Step 1: Access the Birth Registration Adhoc E Recruitment Portal

First off, get online and navigate your way to the Birth Registration Adhoc E Recruitment Portal. This portal serves as your gateway to resume your NPC birth registration.

Step 2: Click on “Resume Previous Application”

Once you are on the portal, your next task is to find the option labeled “Resume Previous Application”. This option is your path to continue your paused registration. Click on it and go for the next step.

Step 3: Enter Your National Identification Number (NIN)

Next, you will see be asking for your application code. This is where your NIN comes into play. Simply input your NIN in the given space as it is the key to retrieving your registration details.

Step 4: Hit the “Resume Application” Button

After you have entered your NIN, the next step is just a click away. Find the button labeled “Resume Application” and click on it. This action triggers the retrieval process of your application ID code.

Step 5: Get Your Application Code

Finally, you have made it to the last step. This is where you will retrieve your application ID code. This code is your ticket to resume your NPC birth registration successfully.

So there you have it! You have successfully retrieved your application ID code for the NPC birth registration 2023 in just five easy steps.

We hope this guide proves to be useful for you. And remember, sharing is caring! Feel free to share this guide with your friends who might also find it helpful.

Please note: Always make sure to save or note down your application ID code in a secure place to avoid repeating the retrieval process.


Related
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26 June, 2023

Apply for NPC E-Birth Recruitment 2023/2024 Application

Apply online today for Adhoc Staff Recruitment and join us in transforming birth documentation in Nigeria.

E-Birth Recruitment 2023: A New Chapter in Nigeria’s Birth Documentation with 2023/2024 Adhoc Staff Recruitment

In an effort to make life better for its citizens, Nigeria has taken a big step forward.

The country has started an exciting new program for digital birth registration.

This program is the result of hard work and collaboration between The National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), the National Population Commission (NPC), and UNICEF.

This partnership marks an important moment in improving birth registration in Nigeria.

Today, only about 40% of children born in Nigeria have their birth officially recorded.

This lack of registration leads to many problems.

Problems Caused by Lack of Birth Registration

When a child’s birth isn’t officially recorded, it can lead to all sorts of difficulties in their life, like:

Reduced Access to Essential Services: Unregistered children often have trouble getting important services like education, healthcare, and social protection.

Increased Risk of Exploitation: Children without official birth records are more likely to be exploited, becoming victims of child labor, trafficking, and forced marriage.

Limited Opportunities: These children face more challenges in getting education, jobs, and chances to improve their lives.

This partnership is a golden chance to fix the problem of birth registration in Nigeria, making sure every child can enjoy a better future.

NPC E-Birth Recruitment 2023: Requirements

NYSC and NPC are getting ready to recruit adhoc staff for the E-Birth registration program for 2023/2024.

If you’re thinking of applying, here’s what you need to know:

Adhoc Staff Applicant Requirements

You will need:

Now, let’s go through what you need to apply for this job.

1. A Valid National Identification Number (NIN)

This number proves who you are. It’s like a social security number. You can’t apply without it.

2. A Pass on an Assessment Test

This is a test to see if you have the skills for the job. You must pass it to apply.

3. A Device with a Camera

You will need a phone, a tablet, or a computer with a camera for this job.

4. Bank Details That Match the NIN Details

Your bank account details must match your NIN details. This is to make sure you are who you say you are.

5. A Valid Education Certificate

You need to show that you have finished school. This could be a high school or college degree.

6. A Valid Gmail Account

You need an email account. But it can’t be just any email account. It must be a Gmail account.

7. A Score of 50% or More on the Assessment Test

You must not just pass the test. You must also score at least half the points.

8. A Valid Bank Account Number

You need a bank account for them to pay you. But it can’t be just any bank. It must be a commercial bank.

9. A Valid Phone Number

You need a phone number so they can call you if they need to.

Keep in mind that you can only use your NIN once for the assessment test and the test itself can’t be retaken.

Important to Remember

There is one more thing you need to remember. You can only use your NIN once for the assessment test. And once you take the test, you can’t take it again. So make sure you are ready when you take it.

How the Collaboration Works

The partnership will work like this:

Roles and Responsibilities

  • NYSC will assign 850 corps members to oversee the birth registration process.
  • NPC will provide training and support for these corps members and will recruit ad hoc birth registrars at the local level.
  • UNICEF will lend its technical know-how and help with collecting and analyzing data.

How to Apply for NPC E-Birth Recruitment 2023/2024

The National Population Commission (NPC), the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) are teaming up. They’re working on a big project to make Nigeria better. They want to record all new babies born. And they need your help.

Doing this job means all children in Nigeria will have a right to be recognized. They will get access to important services and protections. By helping with this, you are helping to build a better Nigeria for its children.

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Applying for the Job

Applying for this job is easy. All you have to do is click on this link: https://birthregistrationadhoce-recruitment.com/.

To apply for NPC (National Population Commission) Birth Registration Adhoc E-Recruitment, follow the steps below:

  1. Start the Application: Click on the “Start Application” button to begin the process.
  2. Choose Start as NYSC or Start as Adhoc: Select the appropriate option based on your eligibility and preference.
  3. Read Application Instructions: Carefully go through the provided application instructions. Ensure that you understand them thoroughly.
  4. Check the Box: Once you have read and understood the instructions, click on the checkbox next to the statement “I have carefully read and understood the above instructions.”
  5. Proceed: Click on the “Proceed” button to move forward with the application.
  6. Verify NIN (National Identification Number): The applicant’s National Identification Number (NIN) can only be used once to access the assessment test. Verify your NIN to proceed.
  7. Validate NIN: Enter your NIN in the provided field and validate it by following the on-screen instructions.
  8. Fill the Application Form: Complete the application form by providing accurate and up-to-date information. The form may require details such as personal information, educational background, employment history, and contact information.
  9. Read Filled Details: Before submitting the form, carefully review all the filled details to ensure their accuracy and completeness. Make any necessary corrections or additions if required.
  10. Submit the Form: Once you have confirmed that all the information provided is accurate, click on the “Submit” button to submit your application.

Please note that the above steps are a general guide and the actual application process may vary depending on the specific instructions and requirements provided by the NPC for their Birth Registration Adhoc E-Recruitment. It is essential to follow the instructions provided on the official NPC website or any other authorized platform for accurate and up-to-date information.

Register For NPC Recruitment News

It’s important to stay updated about this job. That’s why we have a free email alert service called VoiceofNigeria. This service will send you updates about the NPC recruitment. The updates will come straight to your email inbox.

Steps to Subscribe free News

  1. Type your email address in the text box provided.
  2. Click on the “Register” button.
  3. Check your email and follow the instructions to confirm your subscription.
What is the purpose of the E-Birth registration initiative?

The E-Birth registration program aims to increase the number of children in Nigeria whose births are officially recorded, ensuring they have access to essential services and protections.

Who is involved in this initiative?

This program is a collaboration between the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), the National Population Commission, (NPC), and UNICEF.

What are the requirements to apply as adhoc staff for the program?

You’ll need a valid National Identification Number, passing score on an assessment test, a device with a camera, matching bank and NIN details, a valid education certificate, a valid Gmail account, and a score of 50% or more on the assessment test

How does the collaboration between NYSC, NPC, and UNICEF work?

NYSC assigns corps members to manage the process, NPC provides training and recruits ad hoc registrars, and UNICEF offers technical expertise and aids in data collection and analysis.

Why is birth registration important?

Birth registration is essential as it gives children access to critical services like education and healthcare. It also protects them from exploitation and provides them with opportunities for a better future.

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ECD 3216 POLITICAL ECONOMY OF NIGERIA

UNDER- DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA
Under- development is caused by internal structures, while development is caused by either internal or external influence.
Underdevelopment is conceptualized by Samir Amir as a process where there is continued exploitation in an economy to the extent that the full economic surplus along the chain is not available for the re-investments. Instead through manipulated relations of structures, the surplus is expropriated or exported outside the economy. Samir Amir analyzed the third world development dilemma and argued that under- development in the third world is structural, particular structures have been constructed to particularly promote extraversion.

REASONS FOR AFRICAS UNDERDEVELOPMENT.
Samir Amir identified the following structures as critical structural arguments of under- development:

1.The transformation of the third world economies-Third world economies made a transition to capitalism not through a system that empowered them to reap maximum surplus from their resources because the necessary value was never added within the economy. Instead the goods were added value was exported elsewhere. This transfer of value consequently denied the third world the opportunities to realize maximum returns from their resources. Instead, through extraversion, the surplus accrued outside the third world. This is what Rosa Luxembourg called transfer of wealth between modes of production. Furthermore, the third world emerged as a source of cheap raw materials to be added value elsewhere hence the structural reliance that emerged between the periphery and the center- was such that industrial capacity was to be stagnated within the third world economies because allowing them the internal capacity for industrialization would undermine surplus accumulation at the center. This explains the forceful tendency to deprive the third world of autonomous development capacity.

2. Amir observed that there is a tendency towards export markets which accounts for a significant amount of total production-Unfortunately, these are goods which have been conditioned by the industrialized economies which also dictate the quality. However third world
states import goods and services in which they have no voice at all, in terms of form and quality. The consequence with this is that the domestic economy neglects local market to satisfy foreign markets, yet comparatively their import- export trade perpetually reflects balance of payment deficits. Over emphasis on export markets exposes the domestic markets to unnecessary cheap imports which flood such economies, consequently undermining domestic production.

3.Amir observed that the nature of specialization in production was such that the third world was misled to undertake a distorted form of specialization which had marginal returns-Yet the industrialized economies specialized on high returns. The net effect is that international trade contributes to under- development in the third world through unequal specialization.

4.Amin also observed that the behavior of capital invested in the third world is so distorted to the extent that such capital did not promote multiplier effects of investments, for instance the economy did not witness some spillover into indigenous hands, instead foreign capital largely came in as direct investments, since rarely does it allow local shareholding or in the event that it does. It allows minority shareholding. The consequence of this is that monopoly emerges in the economy and market opportunities will be dominated with foreign capital. Equally the attendant profits are profits are exported back to the industrialized economies.

5. The technology which drives development has been applied in a negative way in the third
world- This is because this technology does not create more opportunities for productive engagement particularly in the labor advantage that third world countries enjoy. Instead it reduces opportunities for productive engagements and that it pushes labor out of production. Moreover, these technologies are more based on profit maximization and not on enhancement of domestic investment capacity. Foreign technologies have become so dominant and shaped production to a situation where labor returns are finding themselves more marginal without necessary opportunities.

6.Amin observed that foreign capital underpays labor to the extent that domestic capacity in terms of investment cannot grow since wage labor continues to decline steadily while labor efforts continue to be sold so expensively.

7.Amin realized that the markets in the industrial economies were increasingly becoming exclusive-This means that a form of protectionism was emerging so that domestic production is safe guarded. Whereas means the third world markets were becoming so inclusive or highly liberalized. The net effect of this is that industrialized countries are able to safeguard surplus formation so that external the goods do not destabilize the domestic economy whereas the third world through unchecked liberalization has seen its market taken away by capital further worsening underdevelopment.
In conclusion, Amin noted that the features that actualize underdevelopment are strongly embedded into various structures, be it economic, social political or institutional so that the international institutions. The social systems, the social behavior and the economic organizations collectively are influenced institutionally through a pattern regularized to perpetuate transfer of value. The consequence being the source of production is derived from achieving autonomous capacity for surplus formation because it transfers such opportunities elsewhere. Amir was convinced was convinced that the structural linkages between the third world and the industrialized economies promoted what he termed under-development through unequal development.

The periphery capitalist mode of production has the dual feature of a modern technology and low wages within the framework of the capital is social organization. The productivity cannot be very high in the periphery countries. The labor is cheap, but its productivity is also low in the periphery countries, economic growth is blocked because such countries are dominated by the center. Since there is domination by the center, the development of underdevelopment is neither regular nor cumulative. Development in such countries is somewhat jerky and discontinues. 

Theories of Development
Both Western and Third World scholars have come up with various theories aimed at explaining development and underdevelopment. Such theories attempt to reveal why some countries are developed, while others are not; why some countries are exceedingly rich, while others are extremely poor; and why some countries appear to be amenable to change and development, while many others seem to be vulnerable to retrogression and underdevelopment, as well as how underdeveloped countries can fast-track and achieve development. This unit vividly explains these various theories with particular emphasis on Modernisation and Dependency theories.

What is a Theory?
A theory is a set of ideas that are logical and which establishes a correlation between causation of a phenomenon and its effects. A theory does three things – It helps us to understand (describe), explain and predict a phenomenon.
Therefore, theories of development help us to comprehend and analyse the concepts of development and underdevelopment as they relate to the world we live.

Modernisation Theory
This is the oldest theory of development. Modernisation theory sees development from the prism of western civilisation. Its major exponents include Gabriel Almond, Bingham Powell, David Coleman and Lucian Pye. Also, some classical economists and sociologists such as Adam Smith, W.W Rostow, Henry Maine, Ferdinand Toennies, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and so on, did make significant contributions towards the advancement of modernisation theory. According to this School of Thought, development simply means industrialisation and modernity which are exemplified by the Western industrialised capitalist nations.
Almond and Powell in their essay titled “Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach”, and Almond and Coleman in their piece titled “The Politics of Developing Areas” argued that development is the evolution of a political system through series of stages, from a traditional state to modernity characterised by equality, cultural secularisation and structural differentiation. 

Cultural secularisation is the process whereby members of the society become rational, critical and analytical in their socio-political actions. Their orientations towards politics become pragmatic and participatory as a result of the increase in their knowledge of the political objects, norms and values (Cognitive Orientation) and also because of the increase in their feeling of attachment, involvement and rejection of the political objects and issues (Affective Orientation), as well as the increase in their objective judgments and opinions about the political objects and issues (Evaluative Orientation). When this happens, a participant or civic political culture replaces parochial and subject political culture which initially characterised the political system. On the other hand, Structural Differentiation is the process whereby roles change in the society. Old roles are transformed and new roles accompanied by new structures to perform them emerge. Division of labour and specialisation ensue, and this results in the total transformation of the society. At this point, the society achieves development having attained its optimum cultural secularisation and structural differentiation, and as a result, acquired the capacity to maintain law and order, to attract socio-political participation, distribute resources and privileges accordingly, and to win the loyalty, support and commitment of its citizens which is nation building.

Therefore, the Underdeveloped World can achieve development by imbibing the development attributes of the Capitalist West. Also, some Western sociologists have attempted to explain why the West is developed, while the Third world is not, and how the latter can achieve development. In his view, Henry Maine submitted that development is a movement from a society characterised by status to the one characterised by contract. A status society is ascriptive, particularistic and non-individualistic, while a contract society is achievement oriented, universalistic and individualistic.
Talcott Parson further theorised that traditional and modern societies have five characteristics. For Traditional society, these include:
Affectivity (influenced by emotions in their socio-political actions); 
Collective-Orientation (acting in groups such as family, age-grade, religious fraternity, etc); 
Diffuseness (Diffusion of roles and relationship such that the whole of the personality is involved); 
Particularism (judgement is not based on universally accepted principles, but rather on limited beliefs); 
Ascription (social status and reward are based on birth instead of achievements). On the other hand, modern societies are characterised by neutrality and objectivity, self-orientation, specificity, universalism and achievement.

For these scholars, the Western countries are Contract, Gesellschaft and Modern societies and that is why they are developed, while the Third World countries are Status, Gemeinschaft and Traditional societies and that is why they are underdeveloped. Therefore, the only way Third World countries can achieve development is by discarding their traditional feature and emulating the values and norms of the West. Moreover, Western economists were not left out in this quest for a theory that can explain the causes of development and underdevelopment across the globe.

 Adam Smith attributed the increase in the wealth of nations to development which was made possible by the increase in production and capitalist principles. Similarly, W.W. Rostow described development as economic growth which could only be attained by passing through five stages which he called “Stages of Economic Growth”. These include:
The Traditional Stage
The Transitional Stage
The Take-off Stage (where savings and investments increase significantly and revolutionise tools and methods of production)
The Drive to Maturity Stage
The High Mass Consumption Stage. 

In Rostow’s calculation, it is only the USA that has attained the stage of high mass consumption, or even surpassed it. He argued that every society that desires development must go through these stages of economic growth, and that the Western countries that are developed today passed through these stages to achievement.

Therefore, non-Western countries that desire development should copy the development paradigm of the West. All in all, the modernisation theorists see development from the prism of western civilisation. For them, development means industrialisation and modernity or Westernisation. They argued that the West is developed because it has certain socio-political and economic attributes that are amenable to positive change and development. The underdeveloped states don’t possess such attributes, thus they lack development. But, they can achieve development by trying to be like the West via the imbuement of Western culture. Today such Western culture expresses itself in form of capitalism or globalisation which advocates for liberalisation and market economy where the so-called “invisible hands of the forces of demand and supply” regulate the economy.

Dependency Theory
Dependency theory is also known as Underdevelopment theory/the Radical School of Thought/the Neo-Marxist theory. It came as a direct response to the short-comings of the Modernisation theory in explaining why the core is developed, while the periphery is underdeveloped. Its proponents include; Andre Gunder Frank, Walter Rodney, Frantz Fanon, Samir Amin, Claude Ake, et cetera. Dependency theory sees development and underdevelopment as two sides of the same coin in the sense that they are the inevitable outcomes and the physical manifestations of the World Capitalist system and its inherent contradictions and exploitations. The theory classified the world into two – the Core or Centre (which is made up of the industrialised capitalist nations), and the Periphery or satellite (which is
made up of the colonised and poor countries of the world). 

Dependency theory argues that the export of capitalism by the West to other parts of the World and its resultant colonialism cum neo-colonialism is responsible for the underdevelopment and dependency of the Third World. Capitalism is driven by the quest for profit maximisation, the theory argues. The quest for profit maximisation compelled the Europeans to search for cheap raw material, cheap labour and markets for their finished goods. This led to colonialism and the subsequent neocolonialism through which the resources of the colonised were, and are still being exploited. In this regard, Claude Ake in his classic work – A Political Economy of Africa, submits that: The contradictions of capitalism not only transform it, they also transplant it. The transplanting of capitalism arises from those contradictions which reduce the rate of profit and arrest the capitalisation of surplus value. Confronted with these effects, it was inevitable that the capitalist, forever bent on profit maximisation, would look for a new environment in which the process of accumulation could proceed apace. Capitalists turned to foreign lands, attacked and subjugated them and integrated their economies into those of Western Europe. This is perhaps why V. I. Lenin submitted that “imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism”. Colonialism and neo-colonialism led to the incorporation of the economies of the colonised peoples in the world capitalist economic system at a subjugated position. This produced two consequences in the world – development in the industrialised capitalist states, and underdevelopment as well as dependency in the colonised or Third World countries.
The process of underdevelopment, laments Immanuel Wallerstein, started as far back as 16th century (1450-1640) during mercantilism and slave trade, and later, colonialism, during which the Western Europe enriched itself with the human and material resources it siphoned from the other continents, particularly from its colonies in Africa and Latin America where millions of slaves and huge raw materials were transferred to Europe. The plunder of Africa or rather, Asia and Latin America by European capitalist powers, enhanced development in Europe in one hand. On the other hand, it led to underdevelopment of the colonies and their dependency on the former for survival. That is to say that the development of the Centre is as a result of the exploitation and the consequent underdevelopment of the periphery. Therefore, the relationship between the Periphery and the Centre could be likened to that between a seed and a plant. Just as a seed has to die in order to germinate and give life to plant, the periphery had to be underdeveloped in order to give development to the Centre. But while the relationship between a seed and a plant is natural and symbiotic, that between the Periphery and the Centre is man-made and parasitic. 

Andre Gunder Frank, like other Dependency theorists, believes that the Periphery feeds and nourishes the Centre with its cheap labour and cheap primary commodities (cocoa, cotton, palm oil, rubber, groundnuts, crude oil, etc), while the Centre stagnates and under develops the Periphery with its capitalist greed, export of expensive finished goods, unfavourable terms of trade and exploitative international politico-economic capitalist policies and institutions such as globalisation, the IMF and the World Bank. All these factors individually and collectively, have led to underdevelopment of the Third World Countries and their seeming perpetual dependency on the Industrialised Capitalist States. Therefore, the Dependency School of Thought recommends that the only way the Third world can achieve development is to “delink” their economies from their source of exploitation and underdevelopment which is the International Capitalist Economic System, and chart a new path to development which should be built on socialist principles rather than on the foundation of exploitation of one country by another which
capitalism advances.

HISTORICAL TRENDS IN GLOBAL CAPITALISM
Imperialism 
Colonialism

IMPERIALISM.
What is Imperialism?
Imperialism refers to a situation whereby one economy controls another directly or indirectly, formally or informally. Imperialism occurs when a strong nation takes over a weaker nation or region and dominates its economic, political or cultural life. There are two types of imperialism, formal imperialism and informal imperialism.  

FORMAL IMPERIALISM is whereby a powerful foreign state manages the day to day political, social and economic affairs of another weaker state, i.e. British colonialism in Africa.

INFORMAL IMPERIALISM is whereby a powerful state indirectly works through local intermediaries to manage a distant society. For example the British ruled India indirectly though the monarchs.

Imperialism according to Lenin can be regarded as the highest form of capitalism. This is because capitalism induced monopoly .In this case monopoly finance capital became too  dominant forcing nations and private corporations to compete to control the worlds natural resources and markets. It was therefore necessary to expand capitalism beyond the boundaries of nation sates. Imperialism was enhanced through colonialism.

Imperialism policy was practiced by European nations in Japan throughout the 1800s and early  1900AD where in each case a nation would experience industrialization prior to practicing imperialism in a foreign nation.

 Imperialism has been defined as the economic domination and exploitation of an economy through structural linkages. Many have argued that colonial structures gave rise to imperialism because It laid the foundation for externalization of third world economies to the western European states In his analysis; Joseph Schumpeter viewed imperialism as relations in which one economy through different ways. Rosa Luxembourg viewed it as transfer of value between modes of production; Equally Harry Madoff viewed imperialism as a process where one country economy is so strategic between to economies where one economy is so strategic as to influence the flow of benefits. However, in understanding imperialism, the writing of Lenin v1 remains outstanding particularly in explaining the third world development dilemma.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPERIALISM
Lenin summarized the key characteristics of imperialism and linked them to the process of development. These characteristics included;
1.Imperialism, according to Lenin is the highest stage of capital development in which capital has acquired monopolistic and domineering tendencies. These are reflected quite clearly in investment opportunities in different areas. 

2.Secondly monopolization of proactive sectors is quickly gaining currency where different forms of investment in production have been taken over by firms, syndicates, corporation or trusts.

3. monopoly has been witnessed in the source of raw material where producers have been captured by imperialistic capital which shapes the kind the kind of production that they participate in. obviously, imperialistic capital will not allow producers to increase the value input costs.

4. Lenin observed that bank and industrial capital have entered into a partnership where particular investments are conducted virtually through monopolistic arrangement-A clear example is that since capital is scares in the third world particular is that since capital is scares in the third world, particularly banks arrange to provide capital through investments which ensures that the consumer has no room to source for better terms of capital elsewhere. Since these are long-term investments, it present imperialistic capital with a good opportunity to continue dominating local banks team these strategies and adopt them with serious consequences. This kind of partnership is extremely over-exploitative because it takes advantage of monopoly and dominance by ensuring that the market is under their control.

5.Lenin realized that imperialistic capital has seen major emphasis being placed in exports of capital and not commodity of goods;-capital is exported through different institutions but disguised as development. For instance the World Bank, IMF or the various UN Agencies, intergovernmental or bilateral relations are some of the opportunities through which capital isexported to the third world. Consequently monopolization has now acquired international form where corporations, firms of syndicates have dominated the world and portioned it as spheres of economic influence. They control particular products, their distribution channels, pricing and other related opportunities that may be a source of capital formation. In short imperialism has  seen capital enlarge and transcend territorial boundaries in different countries. In fact monopoly is creating a mass culture in different economies by way of integrating economic production.

6.Imperialistic capital easily dominates and monopolizes investment opportunities by going beyond the logics of economics. For instance they build a formidable political network which comes in handy in terms of favorable policy decisions which traditionally do influence investments. Equally imperialistic capital constructs social networks to be driven intensively by consumerism. This means that they are also outlets through which purchasing are done.

7. In view of the above, then Lenin noted that the third world development process is characterized by difficult and cunning investment capital. A systematic structure from colonialism persists today but through different form. For instance colonialism which encouraged surplus extraction through commodities shifted to imperialistic capital that thrives by
using capital by monopoly to dominate and perpetuate extraversion.

REASONS THAT EXPLAINS IMPERIALISM.
There are several reasons why imperialism policy occurred. Walter Rodney in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa gives the following reasons.
The imperialism policy was fueled by the nearly insatiable demand for cheap raw materials and the need for Markets to buy manufactured goods. The raw materials included iron and cotton from were steel and textiles could be derived.
The forces of Industrialization caused nations to begin looking outside their borders for competitive or cheaper and more abundant sources of more raw materials.
Foreign populations were seen in the lenses of Vast markets where goods produced in domestic markets by the industrialized nations could be sold. 4. Nationalism which can be explained as the pride of one’s country also contributed to the growth of imperialism. Citizens were proud of their country’s accomplishments which sometimes included taking over foreign countries. As the European nations became competitive with each other and in the spirit of nationalism, there was an increased pressure to practice imperialism in order to maintain the balance of power in Europe.

Balance of power was another factor that contributed to imperialism. This is a scenario where European nations were forced to acquire new colonies to achieve a balance with their neighbors and the competitors.

As Europeans took over foreign lands, they viewed the culture of native populations as inferior to their own.
The ‘white man’s burden’, the belief that the whites have the responsibility to save Africans from themselves, from the human natures point of view, this is impossible because human nature is essentially selfish and ego centric.
The “White Man’s burden was yet another cause for imperialism where the Europeans sense of superiority made them feel obligated to civilize the ‘ heathen savages’ they encountered.

THE IMPACT OF IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA
The concept of imperialism resulted to very profitable foreign policy which came at the expense of the foreign regions where it was being practiced.
Imperialism as well led to the cultural diffusion, where exchange of ideas and culture between the West and the East took place. Such cultures have given us the modern education systems and democratic principles.

Imperialism has now integrated itself into the world economy where free capital has transformed to the imperialistic capital, the one that dominates people.
Imperialist capital is notorious for destroying domestic capacity in production but tremendously encouraging consumerism because that is the only way of widening the market outlets. 

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE IMPERIALISTIC CAPITAL
Lenin V1 provides the most comprehensive analysis of the characterization of imperialistic caopital. According to Lenin; imperialistic capital has the following features:
It is a situation in which capital has acquired prominence/significance to the extent that there is monopoly of production, distribution and marketing to such a level where few individuals control massive opportunities (Monopoly).
Imperialistic capital today emphasizes export of capital goods but it is less interested on commodities as exports
Lenin noted that imperialistic capital relies heavily on a brand name as a flagship of their goods and services in different market outlets e.g. coffee, Nokia, Sony, Samsung, Philips etc.

Imperialistic capital is characterized by in-house diversification where various products are produced in house but with a widespread geographical presence to ensure that diverse markets are not only controlled but interlinked.

Lenin noted that imperialistic capital has led to a situation in which bank, finance and investment finance have merged to form a financial oligarchy.(Big monopoly) which today determines ‘profit margins in investments’.

Imperialistic capital has in the recent times transcended economic interest to capture critical political constituency in order to lobby for favorable policies. This has led to negotiations with the political systems resulting to an environment which sustains monopoly and domination.
Worse off, imperialistic capital has now moved further to capture the psychological aspect of human beings through charity proposals or corporate social responsibility.
According to Lenin, Imperialistic capita has acquired a global monopoly where the world has been divided into profit geographical entities through elaborate boardroom strategies.
Imperialistic capital has perfected market segmentation whereby the capacity of a market is determined, the trends and styles are established so that products become so dynamic to factor in these fundamentals. The net goal is to ensure that sustainable and continuous profit maximization through change of style and not substance.

In conclusion, Imperialistic capital defines modern political economy because its major interest is to maximize on economic gains that have been threatened at home so that markets abroad are treated with a lot of interest, because they compensate for losses elsewhere. Imperialistic capital today has become highly strengthened  through advancement in information and communication technology. Foster transport system and the idea of globalization.

COLONIALISM AND NEO-COLONIALISM
Colonialism is a form of temporally extended domination by people over other people and as such part of the historical universe of forms of intergroup domination, subjugation, oppression, and exploitation (cf. Horvath 1972). From a world-system's perspective, much of the history of the capitalist world-economy is a history of colonialism, consisting of repeated and more or less successful attempts by the core to create a periphery, to control it politically in order to exploit it economically. The term colonialism refers to a large-scale political and economic system that allows one geopolitical entity (such as a nation-state or city-state) to establish controls beyond its
traditional geographic borders in the service of increased profit or power.
Colonialism implies foreign political domination and subordination of oversea territories for effective economic exploitation. The process ensured the continued supply of raw materials and food to meet the needs of the industrialised nations of Europe. Colonialism in the views of Offiong was not merely a system of exploitation but one whose purpose was to repatriate the profit to the metropole.

Colonialism and its Impact on Africa 
The 15th Century marked a significant stage in the wave of empire building by many European countries. This was made possible as a result of innovations in science and military technology as major European powers such as Spain, Portugal, Britain and France deployed explorers and military power in the quest for commercial advantage overseas. As merchant embarked on intense pursuit for market advantages, European governments exploited the opportunity to provide protection to their nationals and seeks political control of overseas territories. The economic strategy underlying the relationship between colonies and colonisers during this era of classical imperialism is described as mercantilism. In essence, this refers to the philosophy and practice of governmental regulation of economic life to increase state power and security. State power was assumed to flow from the possession of national wealth measured in terms of gold and silver.

The quest for accumulation of wealth propelled states to pursue and maintain favorable balance of trade. One way through this was pursued was through the scramble for colonies as this provided the opportunity for monopoly capitalism which shut out commercial competition and guaranteed exclusive access to untapped markets and sources of cheap materials. Consequently, each state was determined to monopolise as many oversea mercantile opportunities as possible.

Colonial rule in Africa was an act of political expropriation made possible by the use of force and the threat of the use of force to extract surplus from the continent. This instrument of force manifested in the series of repressions and coercions on the colonised which to Adeniran (1983: 195), resulted not only in the loss of their land to the colonisers but also in lose and re-orientation of their culture. The eventual political domination of Africa was accomplished using the force of superior ammunitions.

The colonial option for Africa therefore became plausible not just as a system of exploitation of the continent, but one whose main objective was to repatriate profit from the satellite to the metropole. Here, African labour and resources were expropriated for the development of the metropole Europe. The logical deduction at this point is that the development of Europe and America is a part of the same dialectical process through which Africa became underdeveloped.
Some available historical records demonstrate that Europe began its conquest of Africa back into the fifteenth century with the colonisation of Angola (1442) and Mozambique (1505) by Portugal. Between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, France occupied parts of Senegal (1637), Reunion (1663) and Mauritius (1715) while the Dutch settled in the Cape in 1652. The British occupied Sierra Leone in 1808 and Cape Colony in 1814; the French took Algiers in 1830 and Equatorial Africa in 1841. In 1842, the Gold Coast (now Ghana) became a British protectorate while Natal was declared a British colony in 1843. Britain began the invasion of present Nigeria with the conquest of Lagos in 1851. They further occupied Basutoland in 1868, invaded Ashanti in 1873 and annexed Transvaal in 1877, while the French invaded Tunis in 1881 (Offiong; 2001).
The motives of European colonial enterprise in Africa are reflected in the 1878 address of Henry Morton Stanley (the Navigator) to the assembled businesspersons of Birmingham Chamber of Commerce. Here, Henry the Navigator stressed that he has thrown open the gateway of Africa to their enterprise. In his words, 
There are forty million naked people beyond the gateway and the cotton spinners of Manchester are waiting to clothe them. Birmingham’s foundries are glowing with the red metal that shall presently be made into ironwork in every fashion and shape for them, and the trinkets shall adorn those dusky bosoms: and the Ministers of Christ are zealous to bring them, the poor benighted heathen, into the Christian fold (Davidson; 1984: 172).
In 1885, Jules Ferry, the French Premier of the Chamber of Deputies highlighted the dominant reasons for colony acquisition as: 
In order to have access to the raw materials of the colonies 
In order to have markets for the sale of manufactured goods of the home country and 
As a field for the investment of surplus. (Offiong; 2001: 63). 
The period from the Berlin Conference to the end of the First World War in 1919 was characterised by imperialist wars against established African kingdoms and empires. Several punitive expeditions against restive groups were administered to force African resistance to colonial domination to submission. In some areas in tropical Africa where pastoralists attempted to escape from the burden of colonial exploitation, the colonial authorities adopted the Scorched Earth policy which ensured that anything that will be relevant to the enemy (in this case, the natives) including the homes, animal and crops were destroyed. Consequently, even in areas where the colonial authorities succeeded in establishing effective colonial control, it was at great expense to the continent of Africa.
The eventual imperial domination of Africa by metropole Europe was accompanied by the various colonial administrations over the emasculated territories. European officials had full possession of the constitutional powers within the territories under the protection of European controlled armed forces. They controlled the civil service, judiciary, prison service and educational system, all of which were designed to buttress the interests of the colonial metropolis.

Colonial authorities in Africa designed several draconian laws that facilitated the subjugation and exploitation of Africa. Some of the laws banned strikes, trade unions, and as in francophone Africa, proscribed political parties and political activities till adoption of the Loi Cadre in 1956, suppressed criticisms, arrested, incarcerated and banished political leaders and severely restricted franchise in the area where it was granted. It is no vain assertion to reason that the epidemics of corrupt and oppressive political leadership that is now prevalent in most parts of Africa are but a colonial heritage, especially as African political leadership simply inherited the structures and orientations left behind at independence by colonial Europe. 

One of the obnoxious policies of the colonial era was the use of Forced Labour. This involved Africans working compulsorily for the colonial authorities and in some cases in plantations owned by European farmers. People were conscripted to build roads and rails lines. Some 20,000-conscripted workers died during the construction of the rail that linked the French side of Stanley Pool on the Congo River to the sea, the Congo Ocean. (Offiong; 2001: 60) Native Congolese were also compelled to surrender certain percentage of rubber for a minimal price. The effect of these was that the Congolese had to travel faraway from home to work under extremely dangerous conditions and by extension, had to neglect the production of basic food crops for domestic consumption. The Belgians enforced this requirement through mass terror, which involved armed expeditions, the use of hostages, mutilations and outright killing. Any resistance from the natives brought merciless retribution by colonial expeditions and the flight of the people away from the rivers of Congo to less ecologically favourable areas.

The description of forced labour in Italian Somaliland, during the 1930s by a colonial official was that it remained ‘a good deal worse than slavery’. A slave cost money and will be cared for by his owner, as he cares for his donkey, and if a slave should die, the owner must buy another. But when a Somali native dies after being assigned to his Italian colonial employer, or becomes unfit to work, it is merely a matter of his employer asking the government to provide another one for nothing. There existed near similar situation in almost all the colonies where forced labour was applied.
Describing the situation in colonial Mozambique, Joan Maquival gives a picture of his experience with forced labour: 
The company paid money to the …government and then the government arrested us and gave us to the company. I began working for the company when I was twelve… The whole family worked for the company: my brothers, my father … my father earned 150 escudos a month ($5.30). He had to pay 195 escudos tax yearly. We didn’t want to work for the company, but if we refused, the government circulated photographs and manhunt was started. When they caught them, they put them into prison, and when they came out of prison, they had to go and work without pay… Thus in our own fields, only our mothers were left… All we had to eat were the little our mothers were able to grow. We had to work on the tea plantations but we didn’t know what it tasted like. Tea never came to our homes. (Roberts and Barnes 1974).

When the company came to exploit our region, everyone was forced to cultivate one field of cotton… The time of cotton growing was a time of great poverty, because we could only produce cotton; we got a poor price for it and we did not have to produce cotton. The people didn’t want to. They knew that cotton is the mother of poverty, but the company was protected by the government. We knew that anyone who refused to grow it would be sent to the plantation in Sao Tome where he would work without any pay at all. So as not to leave the family at all, we had to grow cotton. The company and government work together closely to enforce the system (ibid). 

Beyond the forced labour, the colonial authorities adopted the method of taxation to get labour to work in the plantations and mines. The usual taxes were the poll tax for each animal, hut tax for each house and head tax for each individual. His policy of taxation forced the natives to leave their individual and family farms to work in mines and plantations owned and controlled exclusively by Europeans. Forced migrations in search of paid jobs resulted in the abandonment of traditional subsistence agriculture upon which the African family hood depended to work in European plantations. It also resulted into excessive labour, which succeeded, in putting down the wages payable to Africans. This plunder of the African economy contributed immensely to the continents underdevelopment.

Colonial exploitation of Africa also manifested in the wage discrepancy between Europeans and African workers. For instance, the records of an American shipping company, Farrell Lines show that in 1955, of the total amount spent on loading and discharging cargo moving between Africa America, 1/6 went to Africans and 5/6 went to non-Africans for loading and off loading the same amount of cargo. Furthermore, the Nigerian coal miner in Enugu earned 1/- per day for working underground and 0/9d per day for jobs on the surface during the colonial era, while their counterparts in Scotland and Germany earned far much more (Rodney 1971). This also extended to the colonial civil service. European civil servants in the Gold Coast (now Ghana) received an average of 40 pounds per month, with quarters and other privileges. Africans got an average salary of 4 pounds. In Morocco and Algeria, the wages of Africans when compared to their Europeans counterparts were 16% and 25% respectively.

It is noteworthy to highlight that such colonial investment in Africa such as roads and rail network, were not aimed at the economic development of the colonies, rather, they were an extension of the plots by imperial Europe to siphon the bulk of Africa’s wealth. For instance, the roads and railway networks in Africa were designed to link major minerals and plantation towns within the hinterland and eventually connect them to the coastal states to facilitate the exploitation and exportation of Africa’s resources and eventual distribution of imported European products. 

In Nigeria, the colonialist monopolised economic activities, thereby preventing the emergence of an indigenous entrepreneurial class. Taubman Goldie successfully eliminated Africans from the lucrative trade along the Niger Delta by imposing taxes, which the Africans could not afford. Africans were also charged more export fees than the Europeans. (Crowder; 1968) In the late 1930s, the United African Company (UAC), controlled over 40% of Nigeria’s export and import trade, and in 1949, it controlled 34% of commercial merchandise imports in the country, and bought on behalf of the Nigerian Marketing Boards, 435 of all Nigerian non-mineral exports.

Education was another instrument of colonial exploitation of Africa. This is because the nature of colonial education was aimed at producing the relevant low cadre work force to facilitate the attainment of European colonial interest and aggrandisement in the continent. It must be realised that this motive is indeed a negation of the fundamental role of education, which seeks to preserve the social structures and lives of the individual members as well as the promotion of social change in the society. 

Colonial education in Africa simply focused on a few Africans who will assume low cadre position as clerks, interpreters and elementary teachers. The goal was to produce a body of subordinate workers that will help enhance the domination and expropriation of surplus from Africa to metropole Europe. This was not an educational system that emerged from African environment for the interest of the Africans, neither was it designed to boost the pride and confidence of the Africa recipients or to enhance the rational use of the wealth of the continent. Rather, colonial education in Africa was education for subordination, exploitation, the creation of mental confusion and the perpetuation of underdevelopment in Africa (Rodney; 1971: 264). 

Indeed, colonial educational policies in Africa were characterised by limitation inside limitations. First, it was aimed at inhibiting mass enlightenment relevant for desirable social change and afterwards was inhibited by the political and financial calculations of the colonial administration especially as the metropolitan government and their African administration often claimed that there were insufficient funds to spend in education. For instance, in 1958, the British colonial office in Northern Rhodesia insisted that: Until more money becomes available for the building of school, no rapid progress can be expected and the practical prospects of providing full primary education for all children therefore remains fairly remote (Offiong; 1980). 

The lame attitude of the colonial authorities towards education in Africa is demonstrated in the meagre resources allocated to this sector of the budget of many African states. In 1935, the total allocation to the educational sector in the whole of French West Africa was only 4.03%. In the British colony of Nigeria, it was only 3.4% and as late as 1946, Kenya only apportioned 2.26% of its revenue to the education of Africans. The impact of this poor allocation was that, by 1938 only 22,000 people were enrolled in school in the whole of French Equatorial Africa (Chad, Central Africa Republic, Gabon and Congo Brazzaville) and the French provided education for 77,000 pupils in French West Africa with a population of at least 15 million (ibid). 

On the political front, colonialism mangled polities, divided communities and coerced unrelated people into alien geopolitical clones, called states in Africa. This resulted into the fragmentation and in most instances, the erosion of traditional authorities. The emerging colonial state built and thrived on the overdeveloped coercive apparatus for the subjugation of the African natives. Resistance to colonial oppression was brutally suppressed. In Congo Leopoldville, King Leopold of Belgium reduced the population of that country from 20 million to 10 million inhabitants within a decade. As such William Kornblum (Kornblum; 1998:189) never exaggerated by insisting that the fierce scramble by European powers for colonial acquisition in Africa led to the extermination of millions of natives in continent. 

The emerging multi-ethnic and highly heterogeneous postcolonial state inherited these overdeveloped state structures. The quest to control the state and its apparatus and the increasing tribalisation and sectionalisation of the highly overdeveloped structure of the states in post colonial Africa as well as the epidemics of leadership failures and gross abuse of state power has remained central to persistent crises of armed conflicts and underdevelopment in the continent.

Neo-Colonialism 
The second quarter of the twentieth century was marked by very significant global events like the outbreak of the Second World War (1939), signing of the Atlantic charter (1941), emergence of the United Nations Organisation (1945) and increase in the wave of nationalism in Africa and elsewhere. The logical consequence of these unfolding events was the emergence of new states, which gained political independence from the powers of metropole Europe. By the late 1960s, several African countries had gained political independence. It was with dismay that these countries realised to their chagrin that political independence never meant total independence. Neo-colonialism emerged as a higher form of exploitation of these new states, which were entrapped in the strangleholds of the western capitalist Europe.
In his essays on neo-colonialism, Nkrumah (1966) conceived it as the embodiment of Clientele sovereignty or fake independence characterised chiefly by the practice of granting a sort of independence by the metropolitan power, with the concealed intention of making the liberated country a client state and controlling it effectively by means other than political ones. In essence, neo-colonialism implies granting flag independence with one hand and taking back with another. Nkrumah further insisted that where neo-colonialism exist the power exercising control is often the state which formerly ruled the territory in question. This is because a state in the grip of neo-colonialism is not master of its own destiny because neo-colonialism is the worst form of imperialism. It means power without responsibility for those who practice it and exploitation without redress for those who suffer from it. 
Nkrumah further described neo-colonialism as a definite and last stage in the development of imperialism. This stage to him is more insidious, complex and dangerous than the old colonialism. It not only prevents its victims from developing their economic potentials for their own benefits, but it controls the political life of the country, and support the indigenous bourgeoisie in perpetuating the oppression and exploitation of the masses. Under neo-colonialism, the economic system and political policies of independent territories are managed and manipulated from outside, by international monopoly finance capital in league with the indigenous bourgeoisie. Communication, banking, insurance and other key services are controlled by neo-colonialist. (Nkrumah; 1973: 313) The multinational corporations and the International Financial Institutions (IFI) are the prominent channels through which neo-colonialism operates. 

Woddis (1981:251), in his essays on neo-colonialism observed that as the intensification of the activities of national liberation movements in Asian and African countries in post World War Two era, the emergence of the satellite socialist countries and peace movements in Europe and America, compelled the imperialist to retreat, it provoked new strategies for the continued economic domination and spread of political influence of the colonial metropole on the third world. This strategy manifested in neo-colonialism and its decisive element remained the economic control of erstwhile colonies by the big metropole.

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